Work Motivation

model Motivation Theory and Research at The Dawn Of The Twenty-First ampere-second ready on this journal, the writers examine progress made in hypothesis and look on inevitably, traits, determine, perception, and affect as well as ternary bodies of lit dealing with the context of motif national culture, job design, and models of soulfulness purlieu outburst. They focus primarily on fetch reported mingled with 1993 and 2003, concluding that closing context of use, companionable cognitive, and organizational proficientice theories atomic number 18 the leash most important approaches to work need to appear in the final 30 years.The writers reach 10 normally positivistic proofs take ining predicting, understanding, and influencing work indigence in the new millennium. Miner (2003) concluded that motif continues to hold a significant position in the eyes of scholars. Miners conclusion is establish on a comparison with other middle regularise theories of organ izational conduct (OB). The question remains on an absolute standard, motivation theory and query move over fargond well over the net billet of a snow.In answering this question, we provide a definition of the construct and an judicial decision of how the field of motivation in the oeuvre has evolved and progressed since the year in which the last chapter devoted exclusively to this topic appe ard in the Annual brushup of psychology (ARP). We selectively review theory and look, emphasizing work publish in the old tense decade, 19932003, with special emphasis abandoned to search on contextual cause and mediating mechanisms.Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both(prenominal) deep down as well as beyond an individuals being, to initiate work- connect behavior and to determine its get up, direction, intensity, and duration (Pinder 1998). where motivation is a bring resulting from the inter ph 1 numberion between the individual and the enviro nment. However, because of space limitations, the writers just focus on national culture, job design characteristics, and some atomic number 53-environment fit, omitting reviews of other exogenous sources of motivation.MOTIVATIONAL FRAMEWORK The modeling used in reviewing the literature is consistent with Locke & Henne(1986). Needs is fol abjected by a focus on (b) personal traits. An individual difference variable grow in needs is (c) values. Because context affects the extent to which needs argon met and values are fulfilled, emphasis is given to (d) national culture, (e) job design characteristics, and (f) person context fit. Needs and values affect (g) cognition, particularly deaths. Cognition plays an built-in role in each of these concepts.Although (h) affective re fulfills need non think on cognition (Bandura 1997), the dickens usually are reciprocally tie in (Lord & Kanfer 2002). Finally, affect is castd by culture as well as by organizational norms (Lord & Harvey 2002). We close with an (i) assessment of progress in the field since 1977. postulate Aslam et al. (2000) presented a process-based analysis of need structure and need salience derived from the social indistinguishability approach to organizational behavior.When personal identity is salient, needs to ego- finish and to enhance self esteem through personal advancement and offset become dominant. When social identity is salient, the need to enhance gathering based self-esteem through a sense of relatedness, respect, peer recognition, and proficiency of group inclinations dominate. They stated that McGregors (1960) Theory Y assumptions apply when the supervisory program and employee contend the similar identity Theory X assumptions apply when they do not do so. 2 People are motivated to attain goals that are compatible with their self-identity.Needs associated with a peculiar(prenominal) group membership are internalized they do as a guide for behavior in a specific working context. Need-based theories explain why a person must act they do not explain why specific actions are chosen in specific situations to obtain specific outcomes. Moreover, they do not substantially account for individual differences. Hence, along with increased attention to needs, there has similarly been a resurgence of interest in individual differences, particularly with regard to the notions of job characteristics on employee motivation.TRAITS In summary, the impressiveness of personality in predicting, understanding, and influencing choice, affect, and performance has been shown, as well as the importance of job characteristics (e. g. , autonomy) as a mediator/moderator. An issue identified by Locke & Latham (2004) that has yet to be addressed is how general variables such as personality are use to and are mediated by task and situationally specific variables in touching performance, or how they are moderated by situations and affect situational structuring and choice.Loc ke (2001) showed that values and personality work through goals and self-efficacy to influence performance. Yet it is likely that some trait effects are direct and thus are not mediated. Research is undeniable on if, when, and why this occurs VALUES Values are rooted in needs and provide a principal basis for goals (Locke & Henne 1986). Locke & Henne (1986) argued that values are inherent in most work moti- vation theories. These theories focus on the influence of one or several particu- lar values, such as perceptions of fairness on action or on the effects of values in general (expectancy theory).CONTEXT As a result of globalization, however, values abide been studied within the context of a persons culture and job as well as person-environment fit. National Culture In an attempt to slumberer together needs and values, Steers & Sanchez-Runde (2002) stated that national culture determines three paint sets of distal sources of motivation (a) populations self-concept, including personal beliefs, needs, and values (b) norms about work ethic and the nature of achievement, tolerance for ambiguity, locus of control, etc. and (c) environ kind factor ins.Based on their conceptual model, the authors concluded that these distal factors influence self-efficacy beliefs, work motivation levels, and goals, as well as the nature of incentives and disincentives to perform. Building on research findings of other scholars, Leung (2001) has offered quatern hypotheses for further research (a) work teams in state-controlled cultures have higher levels of unconditional benevolence and positive social identity that, in turn, occur to higher levels of in-group involvement than is the case for groups that value ndividualism (b) productivity and performance levels are more homogenous (not necessarily higher or lower) in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures (c) motivational strategies by superiors have more effect on subordinates in cultures with high le vels of power maintain than in cultures low in power distance and (d) negative reactions from supervisors in high power-distance cultures generate more negative reactions among workers than is the case in low power-distance cultures.Job Design Characteristics Gustafson & Mumford (1995) reported that the ability of personality measures to predict performance as well as satisfaction increases when characteristics of a job are taken into account. Job autonomy can facilitate the time necessary for breeding and liftment, which in turn improves job performance (Wall & Jackson 1995).Cordery (1997) argued the necessity of differentiating the importance of three dimensions of job autonomy, namely (a) method control as delimitate by the amount of discretion one has over the way in which work is performed, (b) timing control in terms of the influence one has over scheduling of work, and (c) discretion in setting performance goals.He engraft four interrelated dimensions that affect job au tonomy, namely the extent to which the supervisor (a) provides clear attainable goals, (b) exerts control over work activities, (c) ensures that the requisite resources are available, and (d) gives timely accurate feedback on progress toward goal attainment. PERSON CONTEXT-FIT The prefatory assumption underlying these models is that the birth between person variables (such as needs or values) and both individual and organizational outcomes is contingent upon various features of the environment (such as the job, the organization, or culture).These models originated from Shaffers (1953). He used Murrays (1938) needs to develop a goodness-of-fit model that takes into account individual differences in needs as well as the characteristics of jobs. Cable DeRue (2002), through a confirmatory factor analysis, found that employees differentiate among three varieties of fit (a) person-environment fit (in which the focus is on organizational outcomes such as organizational identification an d turnover decisions) (b) needs-supplies fit (in which the primary focus is on career-related outcomes such as employee satisfaction) and (c) job demandsemployee abilities fit.COGNITION As Locke Henne (1986) ob pay heedd, cognition is inherent in motivation. The sensations of pleasure and pain are informational. Based on needs, values, and the situational context, people set goals and strategize ways to attain them. Goal-Setting Theory A meta-analysis by Zetik Stuhlmacher (2002) revealed that negotiators who have specific, challenging, and conflicting goals consistently achieve higher profit than those with no goals. Consistent with goal-setting theory, the higher the goal, the higher the outcome.No effect was found for date in setting goals. Contextual Conditions Seijts Latham (2000b) examined the applicability of goal-setting principles when personal goals are potentially incompatible with those of the group. They found that social dilemmas are boundary conditions for the usu al positive effects of goal setting. Self-enhancing personal goals have a detrimental effect on a groups performance. Audia et al. (2000) found that past achievement increased strategic decision makers satisfaction, and satisfaction led them to increase their past strategies.Higher satisfaction was associated with higher self-efficacy and higher performance goals that increased dysfunctional pains subsequent to a radical change in the environment. Implementation Intentions and Auto-Motive Goals Gollwitzer (1999) found that goal intentions that are accompanied by implementation intentions on tasks that are complex for people lead to a higher rate of goal attainment than do goal intentions only. An implementation intention is a mental link that is created between a specific future situation and the intend goal-directed response. Thus, it is subordinate to goal intention.Implementation intentions specify when, where, and how behavior is likely to lead to goal attainment. By forming i mplementation intentions, people strategically switch from certain effortful control of their goal-directed behavior to being automatically controlled by situational cues. Bargh Ferguson (2000) summarized research findings that show that automatic or nonconscious goals produce the same outcomes as conscious goal pursuit in information processing, storehouse storage, social behavior, and task performance, as well as in self efficacy, self evaluation, and mood state. FeedbackAshford et al. (2003) stated that the processing of feedback likely involves monitoring the environment in an automatic preconscious fashion through visual, auditory, and relational cues. In their enumerative review, Ashford pitch-dark (1996) also suggested three primary motives for feedback seeking instrumental to attain a goal and perform well, ego-based to defend or enhance ones ego, and image-based to protect or enhance the impression others have of oneself. Self-Regulation Goal setting and feedback seeki ng in relation to goals are the core of self-regulation (Latham Locke 1991).Self-regulatory processes supporting goal implementation were examined by Gollwitzer Bayer (1999). They offered a time perspective on goal striving and self-regulatory processes as mediating the effects of intentions on behavior. The latter consists of four phases predecisional (choosing among competing wishes, based on expected value) preactional (forming implementation intentions in the service of the goal intention) actional (bringing goal direct actions to a successful end) and postactional (evaluation as to whether further action is necessary)Expectancy Theory After reviewing the literature, Ambrose Kulik (1999) concluded that little or no advances have been made in expectancy theory research in the past decade. Ambrose Kulik concluded that there are few theoretical or employ reasons for additional research on the application of this theory to organizational behavior Social Cognitive Theory SCT res earch shows empirically that the effect of environmental antecedents and consequences are mediated by cognitive variables.SCT emphasizes dual control ashess in the self-regulation of motivation, namely a proactive discrepancy production system that flora in concert with a reactive discrepancy reduction system (Bandura 2001). Thus, people are motivated by the foresight of goals, not just the hindsight of shortfalls. A specific high goal creates negative discrepancies to be mastered. safari and resources are mobilized based on anticipatory estimates of what is necessary for goal attainment. consider/EMOTION Mowday Sutton (1993) argued against an overemphasis on cognition in the study of motivation.This is because moods and emotions influence the attainment of complex long-term goals (Lord Kanfer 2002) and are interrelated with the other constructs we have discussed. Erez Isen (2002) showed that people with higher levels of positive affect exhibited higher levels of persistence, effort, self-reported motivation, and performance on two different tasks. Positive affect was associated with higher levels of valence and expectancy beliefs at these tasks as well as higher levels of instrumentality beliefs at one of them. Organizational JusticeA significant body of research on work motivation that has appeared since Korman et al. s 1977 review is conceptualizations of organizational justice (Greenberg 1987). These studies, based on sociolegal research of disputants reactions to a conflict resolution, supplement Adams equity theory, the key idea of which is that individuals develop beliefs about the inputs they provide in their employment relationship as well as about the outcomes they receive in return, and they form attitudes about the ratio between inputs and outcomes in relation to the corresponding ratios they get the picture among comparison others.The premise of organizational justice is that fair procedures enhance employee borrowing of organizational o utcomes. second premise, namely that in addition to being fair, leaders must be perceived as fair with regard to outcomes and processes that serve an important psychological need (Greenberg 1990). CONCLUSIONS First, three theories dominate the motivation literature goal-setting, social cognitive, and organizational justice. Second, whereas theory and research in the third the skinny of the twentieth century focused almost exclusively on cognition (Latham Budworth 2004), this is no longer true.Third, the ability to predict, understand, and influence motivation in the workplace has increased significantly as a result of the attention that has been given to all rather than only a few aspects of an employees motivation. Fourth, whereas the dependent variables historically studied were limited to traditional measures of job performance and satisfaction, todays dependent variables range from citizenship to counterproductive behavior. Fifth, Cronbachs (1957) plea a half century ago for experimental and correlational psychology to feature forces has been heeded.Sixth, the importance of context to motivation has been recognized overmuch more in recent years than in the past so much so that an additional chapter could be devoted to it. Seventh, these advances in the study of motivation may reflect the fact that this subject is no longer restricted to the research findings of North Americans. Eighth, behavioral scientists in the latter half of the twentieth century responded positively to William James exhortation to systematically study consciousness. Ninth, the antagonisms among theorists that existed throughout much of the twentieth century have either disappeared or have been minimized.Tenth, the nomological nets related to work motivation constructs are thicker and tighter than ever before, but the size of the immix net (metaphorically speaking) is not growing at a rate qualified with the energy that scholars and practitioners have invested since 1977. Accor dingly, Steers (2001) recently recognized the limitations of current theory and research in work motivation, and issued a call for groundbreaking papers for result in a special edition of the Academy of Management Review in 2004. It is too soon to assess whether any of the papers published in response to his call will