Hating crime and inhumanity

Hating Crime and InhumanityHave you of all time lost person that you love and care really much? A friend, schoolmate, neighbour or your kid who returned to God due to an accident or bad luck? Worst, killed because of his or her differences! Matthew Shepard, a victim of hatred offense, was one of them! He was merely an ordinary 21 old ages old male child when he was viciously anguished and murdered, all because he was homosexual! Harmonizing to Tiby, E. ( 2007 ) , hate offenses or biased-based discourtesies are flagitious Acts of the Apostless that occur when a culprit marks a mark due to his or her apparent rank in a certain societal group. Since 1990, the Numberss of hatred offense rates have been steadily increasing despite the fact that we are so called educated, unfastened minded and civilized. Its continued happening has caused President George W. Bush to subscribe into jurisprudence the Hate Crime Statistics Act in 1990 which was later amended by the Violent Crime and Law Enfor cement Act of 1994 as reported by Anderson, J. , Dyson, L. , & A ; Brooks Jr. , W. ( 2002 ) . The bar of hate offenses should get down with a better information aggregation, carry oning monolithic educational runs in cultural diverseness consciousness and racial tolerance, and in conclusion deprogramming hatred offense wrongdoers. First, the existent Numberss of hatred offense must be known to forestall hate offenses! Every twelvemonth, tonss of such instances remained in the dark because some illegal immigrants were unable to talk local linguistic communications and may be needed to be deported. Other than that, officers are non good trained or equipped with the cognition to manage hate offenses. Hence, some offenses are non recognized and reported as hatred offenses. Furthermore, rather a figure of people are really unwilling to describe such instances due to fear that such blasphemous promotion could do farther strain on race dealingss. Such jobs have created an inaccuracy in informations certification of hate offenses. For illustration, if existent figure of instances should be 100 but the reported instances is merely 50 which will indirectly forestall the affair from acquiring any attending from the populace! The deficiency of an accurate informations, reduces the effectivity of hate offenses bar attempts . ( Anderson, J. , Dyson, L. , & A ; Brooks Jr. , W. ,2002 ) In add-on to that, monolithic educational runs should be conducted in the sense of cultural diverseness consciousness and racial tolerance. Education must promote differences and tolerance. Everyone needs to be taught about multiculturalism and the parts by different ethnics and races. In the diary article â€Å" Preventing Hate Crime and Profiling Hate Crime Offenders † ( 2002 ) , Anderson, J. , Dyson, L. , & A ; Brooks Jr. , W. had claimed that such educational attempts should get down every bit early as the pre-adolescent phase. Besides, the coevals of diverseness consciousness and racial tolerance besides need to be promoted by spiritual groups and church folds and non merely sole for schoolrooms and jurisprudence enforcement scenes. Next, an exchange plan with other states should besides assist to increase the openness of the multicultural thought which provides pupils a deeper apprehension. All these should be done to guarantee the endurance of true humanity, love for on e another. Last, hatred offense wrongdoers are ought to undergo deprogramming. An extended guidance is considered necessary for them to get the better of and free off the â€Å" toxicants † of long-run indoctrination of hatred and segregation. Additionally, ex-offenders should assist to run such plans as they have priceless penetration into the heads of those who enduring from hatred and its associates. Traveling on, the absolute engagement of local section of instruction is indispensable in making a course of study to educate wrongdoers to unlearn hatred and advance self growing. Such course of study demands to be conducted from the frame of mention that force is either single or institutional. Ultimately, this would most likely transfuse love and kindness into their Black Marias while fring off the hate caused by misconstruing. In decision, people have their differences and defects as we are all lone worlds. Therefore, we should non know apart or transfuse hatred to others simply because of the differences that we all have! There is no inquiry that it will take a community broad attempts to cut down and forestall hate offenses from go oning. That is precisely why the jurisprudence enforcement community will and must play its function in this venture! Both the people and authorities should fall in custodies in eliminating hate offenses to forestall it from go oning to our future coevalss. As what people normally say, â€Å" Prevention is better than remedy † . Let us halt this inhumaneness from distributing by taking actions now.

Islam in Southeast Asia

In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Malay Archipelago, the Chola Navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman, Kadaram (Kedah), an important fortified city in the Malayan peninsula was sacked and the king was taken captive. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in the year 1267, and many other rulers follow suit. There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. The first theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders brought Islam to the region. The second theory is the role of missionaries or Sufis. The Sufi missionaries played a significant role in spreading the faith by syncretising Islamic ideas with existing local beliefs and religious notions. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam which further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as the religion provided a unifying force among the ruling and trading classes. ( Do?n nay e k bi?t co nen d? th? nay khong, vi no la 2 gi? thuy?t nen nghe no c? k tin c?y). Islam in Indonesia. As we know, Islam is the dominant religion in Indonesia, but not many people know that the amount of Muslims in Indonesia is larger than anywhere else in the world, with approximately 202. 9 million identified as Muslim (88. 2% of the total population) as of 2009. To foreign observers as well as to many Indonesians themselves, Indonesian Islam has always appeared to be very different from Islam at most other places, especially from the way it is practised in the Arabian peninsula. The religious attitudes of the Indonesians, it was often said, were more influenced by the Indian religions (Hinduism, Buddhism) that had long been established in the Archipelago and the even older indigenous religions with their ancestor cults and veneration of earth gods and a plethora of spirits. Many contemporary Indonesian Muslims refuse to recognise them as Islamic because they conflict with modern conceptions of (universal) Islam. In many cases, however, they came to Indonesia as part of Muslim civilisation, even if they did not perhaps belong to the core of Muslim religion. They represent an earlier wave of Islamisation. Islam In Malaysia Malaysia is a multiconfessional country with Islam being the largest practiced religion, comprising approximately 61. 4% Muslim adherents, or around 17 million people. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Malay Archipelago, the Chola Navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman, Kadaram (Kedah), an important fortified city in the Malayan peninsula was sacked and the king was taken captive. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in the year 1267, and many other rulers follow suit. The local population saw that Islam could extricate them from this bondage and provide the means for the extirpation of social evils. The new religion gave the small man a sense of this individual worth – the dignity of man – as a member of an Islamic community. Originally, the draft Constitution of Malaysia did not specify any official religion for the state. This move was supported by the rulers of the nine Malay states, who felt that it was sufficient that Islam was the official religion of each of their individual states. However, Justice Hakim Abdul Hamid of the Reid Commission which drafted the Constitution came out strongly in favour of making Islam the official religion, and as a result the final Constitution named Islam as the official religion of Malaysia. Islam in the Malay Archipelago in general and Malaysia in particular follows the Shafi Madhab (school of thought). However there are many Muslims in Malaysia who do not follow any particular school. In Perlis, the state constitution specifies that Perlis follows the Qur'an and Sunnah and not a particular madhab. Many Muslims in Perlis therefore do not follow any madhab, as is the case with the followers and members of the Muhammadiyah Organisation in Indonesia. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Southeast_Asia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_of_Islam_in_Southeast_Asia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Indonesia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Malaysia Global and Local in Indonesian Islam  by Prof. Martin Van Bruinessen,  Southeast Asian Studies (Kyoto)  vol. 37, no. 2 (1999), 46-63. http://www.islamcan.com/islamic-history/islam-in-malaysia.shtml

A comparison between the American Psycho and A Clockwork Orange

A comparison between the American Psycho and A Clockwork Orange The controversy surrounding Brett Easton Elliss American Psycho and Anthony Burgesss A Clockwork Orange relates primarily to the central themes that are explored in both books. Nevertheless, the brutality and explicit expression that drench these novels is imperative in shocking the readers. Although it is not solely the violent content of the books that shocks, it is a matter of form and style and the methods used by both authors in their portrayals of monstrosity. Both Burgess and Ellis employ literary techniques in their novels that are significantly directed toward provoking a controversial response from readers upon publication. However, this is not to say that the principal purpose of these novels is to shock; arguably, this is merely an effect generated by the form in which these books are presented. It can be said that Elliss presentation of a consumer society is fundamental in driving Bateman, Elliss protaganist, to act in the way he does. Likewise, Burgesss depiction of an oppressive, totalitarian society is also crucial in understanding Alexs desire for sadomasochism. American Psychos bizarre mixture of yuppie satire and splatter horror caused reactions of scathing criticism, indignation, yes, even murder threat. The shocking nature of the novel is engineered by Ellis’s use of graphic content, imagery, and detailed description; in conjunction with the other themes that are invoked, it is clear why American Psycho received such a controversial reception. Ellis refers to Dantes Inferno in the opening line of the novel: ABANDON ALL HOPE YE WHO ENTER HERE; this caption, inscribed on the doorway to hell, is proleptic of the content of the book, acting as a caution to the reader, who will be subjected to The hell of endless presentations of consumer goods combined with scenes of gut-wrenching violence. The graphic content alone in American Psycho is shocking; however, Ellis carefully contrasts nauseating detail of brutal acts performed by the egotistical narrator, Patrick Bateman, with some of the emptiest dialogue ever committed to print. Endles s description of male grooming products (such as the Greune Natural Revitalizing Shampoo), home electronics, and designer fashion brands not only emphasizes the significance of consumer society in ’90s America, but appears in such stark contrast to the horrific scenes of mutilation that the sadistic behavior of Bateman appears all the more appalling to readers. In conjunction with this, scenes of brutality take up only a small proportion of the novel: Batemans first act of violence does not take place until a third of the way through the book. Furthermore, the monotonous uniformity of Batemans incessant descriptions of brand names and consumer products leaves the reader simply unprepared for the bloodshed that follows. For example, Ellis dedicates entire chapters of the novel to the history of bands such as Genesis and Huey Lewis and the News. These tedious, droning descriptions of Genesis albums such as the concept-laden And Then There Were Three are of almost no relevance t o the rest of the novel; however, they are significant in provoking the effect Ellis is intending to pursue. The tiresome depth of detail that Ellis uses generates a false sense of security for the reader, therefore accentuating the more ghastly content of the novel. Correspondingly, a similar motif is employed in A Clockwork Orange. Alex’s ardor for classical music most significantly, Beethoven’s famous Ninth Symphony generates a comparable impression to that produced by Ellis in his use of language; moreover, it is mimetic of Burgess’s approach to structuring the novel. Beethoven begins his Ninth Symphony with a mellow, placid tone that slowly develops to create maximum tension before erupting into a much sharper, more dominant sound that, like the juxtaposition of language in American Psycho, is responsible for creating such a dramatic effect. Similar techniques are put to effect in J.G. Ballards Crash, which was castigated by various critics for the violent behaviour and perverse desires of some of its characters. Ballard, like Ellis, exercises an extensive and unnecessary quantity of detail; however, unlike American Psycho, there is no contrast between the violence and the rest of the book. Ballard blends endless descriptions of mechanical structure, listed exhaustively in precise technical prose for example, the jutting carapace of the instrument panel and stylized sculpture of the steering column shroud with the perverse behavior of characters such as Ballard and Vaughn. In the case of Crash, the relentless use of mechanical jargon amplifies the erotic and violent nature of the book itself and, when used in conjunction with descriptions of every pornographic and erotic possibility and every conceivable sex-death and mutilation, is very effective in generating a controversial effect. Ballard portrays his distinctive i nterpretation of the culture of modernity through the means in which he unifies sex, death, and metallic structure in his language. Ballards view on society is similar to that taken by Ellis, who drenches American Psycho with contemporaneous detail; the reflection of a semi-realistic society in both Crash and American Psycho leads them to appear more shocking to readers. In contrast, the dystopian world of imagination created by Burgess in A Clockwork Orange contains elements of a futuristic culture, which can be seen to appear less offensive to the public. Ballards title, Crash, is relevant to the content of the novel; it is also metaphoric of his view of society as sordid and headed for disaster, a point argued by Virginia Brackett. The language of A Clockwork Orange, a neo-Slavic Nadsat, is hugely significant in addressing the violence of the novel, and is described by Esther Petix as the jargon of rape, plunder and murder veiled in unfamiliarity. The typical tongue spoken between the narrator, Alex, and his â€Å"droogs† is important in considering how Burgess intends to depict violence as both a theme and a way of life for the gang. It is imperative to take into account, when interpreting the Nadsat lexis, the distinct lack of connotations for love, emotion, and compassion that are typically applied in a natural domestic environment. In contrast, Alexs dialogue contains a huge variation of words implicating brutality, violence, and misogyny: for example, Krovvy for blood and Groody for breast. This in itself represents the extent to which bloodshed and brutality are normal to Alex; A bit of dirty twenty-to-one or Ultra-violence is routine for Alex and his Droogs. Similar to American Psycho, A Clockwork Orange also uses a contrast in language to amplify the violence recorded in the book, thus provoking a more deplorable effect. The Nadsat lexis, in offering a variety of misogynistic and violent terms, also includes a number of conflicting phrases. Burgess flecks his dialogues of evil with endearing traces of childhood in words such as appy polly loggies and skolliwoll; this juxtaposition of infantilisms and violent terms aids in repeatedly shocking the reader. In conjunction with this, the Nadsat dialogue is also significant in personalizing the reader with the narrator, implicating us in the sadistic violence he commits. The narrative stream of consciousness we see from Alex constantly incorporates us in his violent behavior. On the other hand, the personalization and interaction between the reader and Alex leads us to empathize with him, raising the argument that the principle of A Clockwork Orange is not purely to shock, but also to pursue other themes. All three books A Clock work Orange, American Psycho, and Crash have been produced into relatively recent films, all of which provoked controversial receptions; the most shocking, A Clockwork Orange, was banned upon release. This illustrates the contextual significance of the novels and represents how the shock of language has dissipated in modern society after exposure to media and film culture. Furthermore, this signifies why the explicit nature of American Psycho generated less of a response than the more subtle motifs of A Clockwork Orange that upset many when it was released. Ellis’s use of language in American Psycho is clearly of great significance in provoking shock; however, it is the illustration of violence that is the substance of the novel. The gut-wrenching depth of detail and graphic imagery thrown at the reader is almost difficult to comprehend. The first act of violence performed by Bateman is a representation of class hatred perpetrated on a black homeless man named Al, which suggests that the encounter is merely an embellishment of the racial prejudice that underlies the novel. However, Ellis images the victims body with tremendous specificity, and the gruesome imagery of Als mutilation traumatizes the reader. The illustration of Als eye as a red, veiny egg yolk oozing over his screaming lips in thick, webby strands paints such a repugnant image that it becomes almost nauseating for the reader. Ellis continues to express such explicit detail regarding almost every act of brutality that Bateman performs. In the second half of American Psycho, the disturbing nature of the novel heightens, as readers are introduced to the first of Batemans sexual attacks. Unlike Burgess, Ellis produces a narrator that readers are unable to empathize with due to the barbarous and sadistic acts that he commits. The perverse scenes of erotic vulgarity involving various prostitutes and hardbodies that Bateman lures back to his apartment are critical in generating the level of controversy that arose upon publication. In particular, Ellis describes a scene where Bateman forces a Habitrail tube up into this bitches cunt before inserting and trapping a starved rat inside her for personal satisfaction. Ellis continues to describe Batemans animalistic brutality, using sickeningly graphic imagery of skin and muscle and sinew and bone before he hack[s] the bone off her chin. Although it is clear from the fierce descriptions of various mutilations and murders that Ellis wanted to disturb his readers, there is a definite correspondence between Batemans victims that represents a portrayal of ’90s American society. This is reflected in Batemans choice of targets, which progresses from Al (The bum, a black man) to an old queer and his Shar-Pei and then onto various escort bimbo[s]. Julian Murphet argues that what Ellis presents as acts of brutality should actually be considered as, â€Å"The cinematically projected fantasization of general class violence toward everything that is not white, male and upper middle class.† To a certain extent, Murphet’s statement is accurate: both misogyny and racial prejudice are expressed explicitly in the lives of Bateman and almost all of those embedded in â€Å"yuppie† culture. The uniformity of such a mundane routine pursued by Bateman drives him toward exorbitant methods of gratification. Carl Tighe supports Murphet’s argument, stating that Ellis’s portrayal of women in American Psycho is that â€Å"they are not intellectuals, they are barely even people.† Furthermore, the dialogue exchanged between Bateman and his associates Van Patten, McDermott, and Price in pretentious restaurants and bars such as â€Å"Nells† and the â€Å"Yale Club† clearly illustrates their materialistic and misogynistic views of women in society. Any females are merely referred to as â€Å"hardbodies† or â€Å"bimbos†; Bateman fails to gauge anything behind the faà §ade or initial impression of a woman. Ellis exaggerates the significance of appearance in American Psycho to such a degree that a waitress becomes intolerable to our protagonist when he perceives that her left kneecap is â€Å"almost imperceptibly thicker† than the right. At â€Å"Harry’s,† Bateman and two â€Å"friends† concur that a good personality in a woman consists of someone who will â€Å"satisfy all sexual demands† and â€Å"essentially keep her dumb fucking mouth shut†; the consistent and deliberate level of yuppie satire and offensive dialogue is a reflection of Ellis’s outlook on the consumer society of ’90s America. Therefore, in Bateman’s egotistical routine of habitual violence, monotonous monologues, and cocaine, it can be seen that Ellis is raising fundamental social and racial problems, which were rife in America during the era of Reagan’s presidency. However, the extent to which racial prejudice and misogyny are adopted by Bateman and his acquaintances enhances the shocking nature of the book, leading numerous feminist groups to berate Ellis with scathing criticism. Similarly, A Clockwork Orange contains indications of misogyny that are apparent throughout the novel, with our narrator regularly partaking in â€Å"a bit of the ultra-violence,† raping and beating young women for his own amusement. The numerous derogatory terms encompassed in the Nadsat dialect regarding females also reinforce such indications, suggesting that A Clockwork Orange was not published solely to shock. The violence of A Clockwork Orange is presented in a very different manner. Despite the lack of specificity regarding every detail of the victim’s injuries, the violence committed by Alex and his gang of â€Å"droogs† is â€Å"both appalling and appealing.† We are able to empathize with the 15-year-old narrator through Nadsat and through his presentation as a typically mischievous teenager in a way that we could not connect with Bateman. Therefore, when Alex and his gang assault, strip, and rob an â€Å"old veck† and â€Å"viddy† him swim in his own blood in the opening chapter, we are shocked to discover Alex finds it â€Å"real beautiful.† Our 15-year-old protagonist takes aesthetic pleasure in the merciless beating of an old man and finds it â€Å"a source of comedy†; this is consistent in Burgess’s attempts to create distress in the readers. A Clockwork Orange does not contain the same level of specificity as American Psycho . However, Alex is presented as an artist in his violence, and Burgess describes his behavior with a surreal and almost facetious detachment. Midway through a brutal gang fight, Alex begins to â€Å"waltz left two three, right two three† before slicing the face of his nemesis, â€Å"Billyboy,† whose â€Å"blood poured in like red curtains.† This illustrates the pleasure that Alex takes in violence and brutality. Similarly, in American Psycho, while torturing a young woman, Bateman is â€Å"grimly lip-synching† to â€Å"The Worst That Could Happen† while it plays on the jukebox. Both Alex and Patrick Bateman are embedded in their own routines of cursory periodic violence, which they perform for no other reason than their individual enjoyment. Arguably, there is a distinct political motive behind A Clockwork Orange: Burgess’s observations during his visit to Leningrad in 1961 inspired the dystopian elements drawn on by the novel. The oppressive, state-regulated nation that Burgess witnessed is arguably what prompted the Ludovico technique, a government program consisting of a variety of ultra-violent films engineered to revert the malicious desires of a young criminal such as Alex. The technique is a clear reflection of the totalitarian society of A Clockwork Orange and that observed in Leningrad. Burgess opposed the infamy and repressive nature of the prevailing Communist governments, and it is evident that his political ideology was influential in the writing of his novel. Critic Esther Petix offers a supporting argument involving the contrast of the government advocates representing the Communist regimes witnessed by Burgess in Eastern Europe subsequent to the Second World War. The Ludovico technique itself is a paradox, supposedly a method of rehabilitation; it instead manipulates our protagonist into a piece of pulpless, juiceless flesh that acts upon command and not out of will. The Ludovico technique is a clear example of the political message that underlies A Clockwork Orange and is critical in presenting the idea of the intrinsic evil of government and the purity of free will, both of which are key themes throughout the novel. However, the inhumane procedure that Alex is subjected to is also fundamental in generating shock, in conjunction with the portrayal of a totalitarian society. Ellis, in his representation of ’90s America, takes us into a decadent cocaine-addicted world that basically revolves around the hunger for parties and sex. This is illustrated in the temporal depiction of a consumer society where clothing possesses more significance than those wearing it. The extent to which Bateman is preoccupied by commodities leads him to become subservient, a commodity himself. It is critical to consider the importance of physical demeanor and possession in American Psycho, for it is imperative in exposing the â€Å"Psycho† of the title. Bateman identifies that physical brutality, torture, and rape have become his only way of escaping his hollow life in consumer society; arguably, the drug-fueled, materialistic world that surrounds our protagonist is the basis for the shock that is that is implicated in Ellis’s writing. Similarly, A Clockwork Orange sees Alex and his â€Å"droogs† habitually drinking from the Korova Milkbar, which ser ves milk plus something else. The drug-laced milk cocktails that are consumed by our humble narrator prior to an evening of physical brutality and sexual animosity would sharpen you up and remove any resemblance to human compassion. Once Alex and his â€Å"droogs† â€Å"feel the knives in the old moloko starting to prick,† they are â€Å"ready for a bit of twenty-to-one† and are able to commit senseless violence with no feelings of remorse. Hence, the drugs consumed by Alex and his gang, as in American Psycho, form the foundation of the gang culture and â€Å"ultra-violence,† two key implications of shock incorporated into the novel. Comparatively, a further representation of drug use in literature as a basis for shock is Hunter S. Thompsons postmodern novel Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, which generated a contemptuous response when it was published in 1971. Thompsons exertion of surrealist imagery is significant in emphasizing the savage nature of drug use and the pursuit of the â€Å"American Dream† reflected in high-powered blotter acid and a whole galaxy of multi-coloured uppers, downers, screamers, laughers. The absurd excursions of Raoul Duke and Dr. Gonzo, the language compounded with a blend of political satire, and the plentiful hoard of drugs all reflect Thompsons perspective on American society and the American Dream. Thompsons use of language and imagery twists a pretentious Las Vegas cocktail lounge into a fucking reptile zoo! Furthermore, our protagonists correspondence to readers from the midst of a drug coma led Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas to be excoriated by various critics for its unfettered plot and adjudicated by readers for its drug use. Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas has been named a classic in the literature of depravity as a result of its sardonic depiction of ’70s America; allusions to The San Francisco Acid wave illustrated an endorsement of a drug-charged nation and triggered controversy when it was released to the public. Implications of drug use are included in all of these postmodern novels and form a fundamental basis for the society that the authors are presenting, which consistently creates controversy. Whilst A Clockwork Orange may appear shocking in content, there is arguably an overt philosophical and political purpose behind it. Hence, it was not published purely to generate controversy; that controversy is merely a tool in conveying a greater message. It can be argued that American Psychos â€Å"disturbing thematics are the product of an apocalypse culture, a culture that Ellis depicts as corrupted by consequence of its lust for cocaine, its impulsive drive for glamour, and its prejudice regarding those who do not tailor to its idealistic optimum. However, it is difficult to justify the books provocative and offensive nature without the development of a prevailing theme, other than implications of consumerism and misogyny. In the explicit portrayal of the life of Patrick Bateman, Ellis is fundamentally endeavoring to evoke shock among readers, and it is evident that this is the principal purpose of the novel. Bibliography 1. Alighieri, Dante. Inferno. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2009. 978-0-87220-918-3. 2. Bloom, Harold. Dark Humor. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2010. 978-1-60413-440-7. 3. Brackett, Virginia. Beginnings through the 19th Century. New York: Facts on File, 2006. 978-0-8160-7497-6. 4. Buchholz, Sabine. â€Å"At the Edge of Art and Insanity: Postmodern Elements in Brett Easton Ellis’s American Psycho. Norderstedt, Germany: Druck und Bindung, 2006. 978-3-638-90456-8. 5. Frank, Michael. â€Å"Violence and Consumerism in Brett Easton Ellis’s American Psycho and Chuck Palahniuks Fight Club.† Norderstedt, Germany: Druck und Bindung, 2009. 978-3-640-46678-8. 6. Gerhmann, Tim. â€Å"Parallelism of Character and Concept in American Psycho and Cosmopolis.† Norderstedt, Germany: Druck und Bindung, 2006. 978-3-638-76862-7. 7. Murphet, Julian. â€Å"Brett Easton Elliss American Psycho.† New York: The Continuum international Publishing Group Ltd, 2002. 0-8264-5245-0. 8. Petix, Esther. â€Å"Linguistics, Mechanics, and Metaphysics: A Clockwork Orange.† New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987. 0-87754-676-2. 9. Schiel, Anja. Abandon All Hope: Consumerism and Loss of Identity in Brett Easton Ellis’s American Psycho.† Norderstedt, Germany: Druck und Bindung, 2005. 978-3-638-93642-2 10. Tanner, Laura. â€Å"Intimate Violence: Reading Rape and Torture in 20th-Century Fiction.† USA: The Association of American University Presses Resolution, 1994. 0-253-35648-2. 11. Tighe, Carl. Writing and Responsibility. London. Routledge, 2005. 9780415345637 12. Torrey, Beef and Simonson, Kevin. Conversations with Hunter S. Thompson. Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi, 2008. 978-1-934110-76-8 13. Trawers, Martin. European Literature from Romanticism to Postmodernism: A Reader in Aesthetic Practice. New York: Continuum, 2001. 0-8264-9098-0.

Film noir Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Film noir - Essay Example Yet this list is not exhaustive. Thrillers such as This Gun for Hire, The Big Sleep and The Lady in the Lake are as much part of the genre as are the more experimental Call Northshid 777, The House on the 92nd Street and The Naked City. Whatmore, compounding the problem of definition of film noir are the various renowned directors who have embraced the genre. Household names like Billy Wilder, John Huston, Otto Preminger, Robert Siodmak and Fritz Lang have all contributed to film noir. These luminous directors have not merely restricted themselves to film noir but have acquired fame for works in other genres. Hence classification on the basis of director groupings is also inadequate in defining film noir. Perhaps the only definitive quality is that the genre came into its own in the decade after the Second World War. It was an era of morose and confusion, as people (both in the United States and Europe) were grappling with evil tendencies in human nature – something film noir faithfully captures. In my opinion, authors Borde and Chaumeton do a commendable job of attempting to define the genre. They lay out the broader categories into which it falls, which incidentally complicate the problem. Finally, their definition of the genre in terms of its emotional effects on the audience – the state of tension and a specific psychological alienation imposed on the spectator – is something I agree with. The author begins by acknowledging the difficulties in defining film noir. Contrasting it with other established genres like horror or western, Schrader reckons that the differentiating quality of film noir is its subtle yet dark tone and mood. More than qualities inherent to the film, its periodic setting and its production in the forties and early fifties are better markers of the genre. There were four key socio-political conditions during this period which were instrumental in the birth of film noir. The first was

Power And Culture Within Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Power And Culture Within Organisations - Essay Example According to Edgar Schein (1985), organizational culture is that pattern of basic assumptions that are shared, and that a group learns in its endeavour to solve problems of internal integration and external adaptation. Further, these shared assumptions should have well worked in the past and are therefore qualify to be taught to the organization’s new members as a right way to think, perceive and feel with respect to these problems. These values and norms are the ones that control the way people act and interact with one another and with people outside the organization including other stakeholders. In the actual sense, an organization’s culture is actually its personality according to McNamara (2000). In this sense, different organizations have different organizational cultures more like people have different personalities. An organization may have a weak or strong culture generally (Parker, 2000). A strong culture exists where members of staff respond to stimulus as a result of their respect and appreciation for organizational values. In such a case, people tend to act in a given way since they believe that is the right way to act. A weak culture on the other hand is in place when staff members have little commitment to the organization’s values and therefore must be controlled through the application of bureaucracy and/or extensive procedures. According to Kennedy and Deal (1982), organizational culture is the way things are â€Å"here† done. In one of their research, the two measured organizations using two parameters – risk or uncertainty and feedback or response. According to the findings of this study, Kennedy and Deal noted that organizations may be distinctly classified into four with respected to culture. The four cultures include the process culture, the bet your company culture, the play hard/work hard culture, and the tough-guy macho culture. The process

Astronomy 101 for 2 year college Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Astronomy 101 for 2 year college - Lab Report Example 5% of them seem to split in two facular points; (h) they disappear simply by fading away in an intergranular space; (i) they never merge with another facular point or with a granule. C. Small dark regions called sunspots. Sunspots are cooler regions on the photosphere. Since they are 1000--1500 K cooler than the rest of the photosphere, they do not emit as much light and appear darker. B. During a total solar eclipse, an exceptional situation occurs, and for a few fleeting seconds, an emission spectrum can be observed. This happens at the very beginning of totality and just after the last bit of photosphere has been covered by the Moon. (Picture 1) For a period of several to perhaps ten seconds the chromosphere is visible as a red arc. (Recall that the chromosphere is a very thin layer just above the photosphere.) Often prominences are seen jutting from the chromosphere. The deep red color of the chromosphere comes from very strong emission in the hydrogen-alpha line at 656 nm. Because the chromosphere is quite rare and hot (with a temperature of about 10,000 K) it shows an emission spectrum in the absence of any light from the much brighter photosphere. Of course, the advance of the Moon soon covers the chromosphere and then the much rarer corona becomes visible as a broad white halo. Within minutes totality reaches completion, the chromosphere reappears on the o pposite side of the Sun followed seconds later by the overwhelming brightness of the photosphere. (Picture 2) Because the chromosphere is so thin, it forms an ideal subject for spectral imaging. A diffraction grating inserted in the light path of a telescope separates the light according to wavelength (just as in your spectrometer). An attached camera will then record the chromosphere imaged in each of the component wavelengths in its emission spectrum. This is the flash spectrum, so-called because of its brief accessibility. B. Because the chromosphere is quite rare and hot (with a temperature of

Vodafone industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Vodafone industry - Essay Example This paper is an analysis of Vodafone products and services from the past and a comparison with the products and services it offers in the present scenario. Vodafone is a UK based company which started its operations in 1983. It was the start of telecommunication technologies. In the year 1985 Vodafone launched the first National Network in UK. This was first generation technology of the telecommunication sector in which mobiles were installed in cars and used car’s battery as energy sources. Vodafone was one of those who got the first movers advantage in this sector. Vodafone dealt with the challenges of 1G technology with the help of Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) technology. It was a digital system. It launched its first GSM network in 1991. 2G technology enabled transmission of data along with voice over the mobile network whereas Wireless application protocol (WAP) made internet based services accessible with mobiles. Vodafone Group Plc is operating in more than 39 countries. It has a strong customer base of approximately 155 million customers. It has expanded its services from telecommunications to mobile har dware and internet communications. It has expanded itself with the changing communication requirements of its customers. Its efforts are directed towards meeting all kind personal or official communication needs of its customers. Mobile is always at the heart of what we do, but now we are moving into integrated mobile and PC communication services. We are doing that in two ways – wirelessly through 3G and HSDPA (High-Speed Download Packet Access), but also using fixed line broadband services like DSL (Digital Subscriber Line). (Vodafone.com, 2007) In the year 2001 it became the first in the world to offer 3G roaming calls to its customers between Japan and Spain. It introduced Short Messaging services in the same year which enabled customers to

Bermuda Triangle Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bermuda Triangle - Research Paper Example The number of accidents will be illustrated and its causes and scientific facts will be submitted to have a clear understanding of the mystery. Discussions of fallacies come first followed by scientific explanations. Background First, let us have an idea where Bermuda Triangle is located. Thru the map, Bermuda Triangle has an imaginary line located off the South-Eastern coast of the United States and in the Atlantic Ocean. The three corners of the triangle are: San Juan, Puerto Rico, Miami (Florida and Bermuda (North of ) Atlantic Islands.(Battcharya, Raj.)    The definite area is not defined, but some says it is around 500,000 to 1,500,000 square miles. Battcharya, Raj recalls, at the time of coining a name or this place, it was named after Miami, but people of Florida objected for fear that tourists might be afraid to come. The same objections were raised by Puerto Rico too. No one seems to question when it was given the name Bermuda, so from then on the name Bermuda is retained. (Rattchaya, Raj) Several scientists have advanced their theories about the mystery of Bermuda Triangle. But the list of lost planes and ships are long that the theory or mystery is quite intriguing. This is not a complete one, but after exhaustive research I have gathered there is about 1,000 numbers of lost vessels and planes in this triangle, but names are no longer listed. The loss started in 1875 up to 1975 and after that only one incident has been reported lately. (India TV). List of vessels and planes lost in the Bermuda triangle are shown below. (not-exhaustive) Flight 19: The Avenger planes of Flight-19 took off from the U.S Naval Base of Florida for a routine training session, but never returned. PBM Martin Mariner: When the hopes for Flight-19 was quickly fading, two Martin Mariner planes were sent by US Navy to search them out. One came back, but strangely the other didn't. Tudor Star Tiger: Star Tiger, a Tudor Mark-IV aircraft disappeared in Bermuda Triangle shortly befo re it was about to land at the Bermuda airport Flight DC-3: The flight DC-3 NC16002 disappeared when it was only 50 miles south of Florida and about to land in Miami.   Flight 441: The flight 441, a Super Constellation Naval Airliner disappeared in October 1954 : USS Cyclops: Disappearance of the carrier ship U.S.S. Cyclops in Bermuda Triangle has been one of the greatest mysteries of the sea. Apparently it seemed to be a sudden thunderstorm that had disintegrated the plane. Mary Celeste - The Ghost Ship: Known as one of the ghost ships of Bermuda Triangle, Mary Celeste had many misadventures even before her mystery voyage in 1872. Ellen Austin: The Ellen Austin, an American schooner, met with another ship in Bermuda Triangle. The other ship that was moving in full speed, strangely had nobody on board. USS Cyclops: Disappearance of the carrier ship U.S.S. Cyclops in Bermuda Triangle has been one of the greatest mysteries of the sea USS Scorpion: USS Scorpion (SSN-589) was a Nuclea r powered submarine of United States Navy that disappeared in Bermuda Triangle area in May 1968 source: Battcharya, Raj Note that most of these losses happened decades ago, the last one was in 1997and news about further losses is no longer found. However, a recent news about the loss of the plane boarded by designer Vittorio and five others that appeared on January 9, 2013 has deepened another round of

What can we learn from change strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What can we learn from change strategies - Essay Example is going to discuss how the programme of change affects the structure of the organization illustrating briefly the organization structure prior to change and the results of the change programmes. The paper will also discuss the impacts of change on the staff and systems in relation to motivation and engagement of staff and the new way in which they have to work following the change. Hill and Jones (2007) noted that the programme of change has positive impact on the structure of the organization as the changes are meant to improve ways of achieving the goals and objectives of the Companies. Strategic changes occurred in Asda Superstore in order to deal with new products in the market, increased competition, new government regulations, changing the workforce and technological developments hence the business was assured of success. Prior to the change the organization structure of Asda Superstore was simple since they had less employees and managers and hence running the business was easier. Changes had to be considered because the supermarket was struggling to increase sales and change in consumer habits that were driven by the increase in online shopping and low incomes among customers made it difficult to succeed. Change programmes were initiated after the demand of the products in Asda superstore increased and therefore there was need to change strategies so that they can meet the needs of the customers. Jansson (2008) stated that the organizational structure for Asda superstore was refined, their accountabilities clear, duplication removed and decision-making made swift and communicated transparently. The strategic changes in Asda superstore had a positive impact on the staff and systems, as they were encouraged to contribute to the success of the organization by being given a chance to share their ideas and being involved in the decision-making processes (Samson and Bevington, 2012). After the strategic changes, some staff members were motivated by being

Impact of Wikileaks on the Global Political and Economic Landscape Essay Example for Free

Impact of Wikileaks on the Global Political and Economic Landscape Essay Introduction WikiLeaks website has changed the profession of journalism in the United States and the media perspective with its flow in the information society. The website is a platform that helps unmask all the corruption activities going on in the government offices. Of all the media platforms WikiLeaks is the most famous for the news updates on political matters happening in the states and around the globe. Wilileaks has contributed to several media conflicts especially between the United States and other nations and that is why the government does not support its activities at all. In my essay, I am going to explore the various ways in which WikiLeaks has helped unmask several criminal and corruption activities going on in the country. Although some of its news are a bit compromising to the security and dignity of the nation the platform has given light to the people of the United States of America. Wikileaks is a non-profitable and non-commercial internet platform that was introduced in 2006 by Julia Assage. It relies on online donation for all its functioning and funding. Its main purpose is to upload documents that help expose the government and corporate institutions to the public. These documents are uploaded anonymously by using an online submission form. The importance of this platform is that it has the potential to make known the scale of brutality and violence especially in the military welfare. Political honesty is a virtue that every U S politician should exercise and with the help of Wikileaks they have no option but observe it. In other words, a journalist platform watchdog makes secrets transparent to all and especially those involving the public. Most media organization has tried to view groups like WikiLeaks in several dimensions with most of them considering its concrete actions as one of the online activism and the impacts of its actions. It is important to first note the relationship between the two groups, media and government. In most incidences the media always seems to be conflicting with the government over issues regarding the people. Platforms like WikiLeaks are great threat to the state government especially in issues of corruption and law (Shirky, 2011, p.41). Through their online activism, Anonymous and WikiLeaks groups have their power to â€Å"unmask† power structures like the corrupt police departments in the US, and all the Armison brutality activities. While WikiLeaks has gained fame as a whistle blowing site since its introduction in 2006, its reputation increased when it released the so-called Iraq and Afghanistan war document in 2010. This document contained crucial and important information about the events that took place and the people and nations responsible for the war. The United States government was not happy with the release of these documents as they posed great danger of terror attacks by either Iraq or Afghanistan. These two countries are known for their fierce terrorism activities and interfering with them would be like provoking them. The release of these documents brought about a number of questions concerning the legal implication of journalism freedom with top government officials claiming that too much freedom will lead to misuse of information or misinterpretation of some crucial and sensitive information (Springer, 2014, p.411).Actions of WikiLeaks have affected the media platform in various concrete ways. The likes of Tambini and Lynch have tried to investigate the implication of WikiLeaks work and the measures to regulate the censorship of related sites especially in the UK and US. They argue that whistle blowing organizations should be awarded protection under the law on their ability to â€Å"self-regulate† and â€Å"develop† ethical principles to govern their freedom of publication and decisions they make on their work. The platform poses a great threat to the government and politicians and there are fears that if allowed to continue with its activities it will cause a lot of harm to the U S government by exposing sensitive government secrets to the world. Other nations also feel that WikiLeaks should be restricted on some publications because some of the information it exposes might cause a lot of friction especially between nations. The advancement of WikiLeaks since its establishment up to the publication of the Iraq and Afghanistan document was marked by a degree of media fascination, which made it gain a lot of fame compared to other media platforms. This posed a great threat to the media personalities who felt that WikiLeaks was gaining fame with each passing day making their work very difficult to appeal their audience. Its turnaround moment came in 2010 and continued to 2011 when the organization produced a lot of materials and documents regarding the Iraq war, the Collateral Murder Video and the diplomatic cable. There have been several attempts by media organizations to look down on the role of cites like WikiLeaks and deny them the freedom to post confidential documents although these attempts have not succeeded because the platform is under the media authority which protects all its activities. It also describes itself as a watchdog for the people â€Å"we believe that it is not only the people of the United States who should keep their government honest but also people from other countries† and that is why other countries are also opposing Wikileaks activities. (Pozen, 2013, p.635). We can say that wikiLeaks has played a great role in ensuring that congress does not abuse the powers granted to it and its members. He makes information about organizations that abuse powers granted to them available to the public and so they are aware of what their leaders do this makes leaders very keen on what they do. Anonymous submission of analyzed documents about the various activities going on in public offices and organizations are presented on the WikiLeaks website enabling millions of viewers to have knowledge of what is happening behind the curtains of power. The difference between WikiLeaks and other sites like Wikipedia is that it engages mostly in the political struggles. The use of media has become a trend in the United States making the latter transparent and exposing those who try to abuse office powers granted to them. Today we live in a world where technology is the main aspect to shaping the lives of many people. The internet is now being used as an eye of power to tackle various aspects of crimes performed by leaders especially in third world countries (Coleman, 2014, p.406). Based on various aspects of tradition we can define power as the â€Å"disposition over the means required to influence various processes and decisions in our daily lives.† this means that the power to control several issues like political influences and distribution of resources can be distributed in a more systematic way. Democracy is the only way to ensure there is equal distribution and exercise of both political and cultural powers. Organizations like WikiLeaks exist because we live in an era where political and cultural powers are not exercised fairly as expected. Any government that exercises its powers as expected should not have any worries about organizations set to scan their activities. They should instead be supporting such groups so that they can display their good work on these sites. The United States government highly opposes such organizations like Wikileaks because they are afraid that their dirty linens will be exposed to the public. Analysis shows that the most important element of WikiLeaks is to make the Obama government practice transparency in their works and offices, establish a more transparent, and open government. The platform defines itself as a liberal project that protects the rights of the United States people especially freedom of speech because it strengthens democracy by exposing government corruption. He places his emphasis on documenting government and corporate irresponsibility and abuse of powers. This shows the general public that the corrupt government is the main problem in the world’s economy and is pulling development behind. Instead of improving the livelihood of their nations politicians are busy engaging themselves embezzling funds and resources meant to improve the development of their citizens. There has been an emerging body geared at seeking a framework to examine the works of WikiLeaks and its impact on the current situation in the U S. The widespread use of technology has made his work a success in various ways and has brought a great impact to the world’s economy. Following the publication of the Iraq documents the United States government heavily criticized WikiLeaks work. The government claimed that these documents were a great threat to the security of their country and could put the citizens at a very high risk of terror attacks by the Afghanistan government (Springer, 2014, p.411). The truth about the WikiLeaks documents is that they got the potential and ability to make visible the amount of brutality and violence especially in military horror conflicts during their activities because some use a lot of brutality on their subjects. The site is political based since most of its news come from the political arena, although many view it as a threat to ruling groups and they see it as an enemy. Instead criticizing such cites we should base our efforts in monitoring the governance offered by our political leaders. We should ask ourselves are our political leaders meeting all our demands and expectations. Do they take advantage of the powers granted to them to abuse office? In fact, we should ensure that we capture every activity they undertake so that we can be sure of what they do with our money. They should be aware that the public is watching their every move and be conscious of their actions. There has been a problem with scientists arguing that the journalism powers and freedom granted to these sites are too much and they are using them inappropriately to create biased information. Most leaders are unable to verify the facts stated in the articles because they do not have a strong background. This makes the general public doubt their potential and innocence in the accused incidents. Some of these articles have very confidential information about the government and exposing them is like displaying the secrets of a state. The scientist claims that there should be a certain limit to the freedom of publication of such documents to the internet because they may cause a great damage in future (Gibson 2013, p. 314). In my study, I have explored several things and have learnt that; journalism benefits from a disclosure of the framework in which it is built. A journalism model is bound to directly or in directly affects the model in which leaking of important documents will be exposed to the public. In my opinion, WikiLeaks models are the most effective journalism models since they abide to the entire ethic. Real life cases are always the best examples to handle and solve situations and that is why it is advisable in some situations to leave behind the easy scenarios to get the best outcome to fit in the world. Most critiques of Wikileaks have released their anger by claiming that exposing secret documents will pose great danger to Americans. For instance, if you expose concrete information about a certain terror group the group is bound to take revenge on you by conducting a terror attack on you. Some of the publishers do not look at the possibilities of posing danger to the people but stick to the fact that the public has the right to know what is happening around them regardless of the intensity of the matter. It is therefore advisable that these journalists are cautious of what they publish to the public to avoid any conflicts. I believe that journalists have the right to publish what they want and help the public know about their government on the basis that they abide by the rules put in place to govern their publications. References Curran, G, Gibson, M 2013, WikiLeaks, Anarchism and Technologies of Dissent,  Antipode,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   45, 2, pp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   294-314, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 28 November    2014. Springer, S, Chi, H, Crampton, J, McConnell, F, Cupples, J, Glynn, K, Warf, B, Attewell, W   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2012, Leaky   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Geopolitics: The Ruptures and Transgressions of WikiLeaks,  Geopolitics,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   17, 3, pp. 681-711,    Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 28 November   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2014. Youngblood Coleman, D 2014, United States: 2014 Country Review,  United States Country Review, pp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   1-981, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 28 November   Ã‚  Ã‚   2014. Coleman, DY 2014, Afghanistan,  Afghanistan Country Review, pp. 2-406, Business Source   Ã‚   Complete,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   EBSCOhost, viewed 28 November 2014. Pozen, DE 2013, The Leaky Leviathan: Why The Government Condemns   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   And Condones   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unlawful Disclosures Of Information,  Harvard   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Law Review, 127, 2, pp. 512-635,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 28   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   November 2014. Shirky, C 2011, The Political Power of Social Media,  Foreign Affairs, 90, 1, pp. 28-41,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Academic Search   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 28 November 2014.

Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Transcription

Difference Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Transcription SUMMARY Biosynthesis of proteins is under direct control of DNA in most cases or else under the control of genetic RNA where DNA is absent. Information for structure of a polypeptide is stored in a polynucleotide chain (Gupta, 2007). Sequences of bases in a particular segment of a polypeptide chain will determine the sequence of amino acids in a particular polypeptide (Gupta, 2007). The relationship popularly known as central dogma explains how protein synthesis is controlled by nucleic acids. There are two major steps involved in protein synthesis (1) transcription and (2) Translation. Transcription involves transfer of genetic information from DNA to mRNA and Translation involves translation of language of nucleic acids in to that of proteins (Gupta, 2007). Transcription will be discussed in detail in the present topic. TEXT Transcription is the synthesis of RNA which carries the genetic information present in DNA (Fig. 1). The DNA is double stranded and can theoretically code for two separate RNA molecules (Jain, 2000). However, it has been found that only one of the two strands of the gene is transcribed (Jain, 2000). Only in a few exceptional cases both strands are transcribed. This is possible because the promoter is asymmetrical and unidirectional (Jain, 2000). The DNA strand which have a sequence homology with the RNA is known as the coding strand. The second strand which is complementary to RNA and serves as the template for RNA synthesis is known as the non-coding strand. It is therefore, a misnomenclature, as it is the non-coding strand which is in fact transcribed to form the primary transcript (Jain, 2000). Transcription in prokaryotes The principal enzyme involved in transcription is the DNA dependent RNA polymerase (commonly called as RNA pol). To understand the transcription, it is necessary to learn more about the RNA polymerase. The bacterial RNA polymerase consists of five polypeptide chains including two chains of ÃŽ ± (alpha) polypeptide and one chain each of ÃŽ ² (beta) and ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ (beta dash) and ÏÆ' (sigma) polypeptides (Fig.). The RNA polymerase molecule thus can be represented as ÃŽ ±2ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ÃÆ', in which the attachment of sigma (ÏÆ') factor is not very firm, so that the core enzyme (ÃŽ ±2ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹) can be easily isolated. The size and function of the prokaryotic RNA polymerase is given in table 1. The active sites of core enzyme are shown in fig. (). Once RNA synthesis is initiated, ÏÆ' dissociates after RNA is 8-9 bases long and then the core enzyme brings about elongation of mRNA. The dissociated sigma factor may again combine with core enzyme to form RNA polymerase holoenzyme (Fig,..). Events in transcription The entire process of transcription can be divided in to following steps: (1) Template recognition (2) Initiation (3) Elongation and (4) Termination Template recognition The promoter directs the RNA polymerase to recognize the correct region of the gene and to bind at this site. The -35 region serves this function and is recognized by the enzyme. The size of the RNA polymerase is such that about 60 nucleotides in the gene are involved in binding of the enzyme to the template. Sigma factor plays an important role in specific binding of the enzyme with the template (Jain, 2000). The core enzyme without the sigma factor can bind to DNA but the binding is not promoter specific. The sigma factor is thus necessary for the formation of promoter-enzyme complex. The binding of RNA polymerase to a site other than the promoter is generally referred as loose binding. In presence of sigma factor, the affinity for loose binding is reduced while the affinity for specific binding is increased (Jain, 2000). Thus the chances of only the specific binding taking place are enhanced many fold in presence of sigma factor (Jain, 2000). Initiation and elongation of RNA synthesis in prokaryotes RNA synthesis by RNA polymerase proceeds in four steps: (i) the holoenzyme first binds at the promoter site, forming the closed promoter complex in which DNA remains double helicle, (ii) the closed complex isomerizes and causes unwinding and separation of DNA strands to form open (binary) promoter complex, (iii) after unwinding only one of the two strands is copied; this is achieved by incorporation of nucleotides, initially without movement of enzyme leading to the formation of RNA chain, up to 9 bases in length. During the incorporation of these 9 bases, at every step, there is a possibility for the release of this small RNA chain, a process described as abortive initiation (Gupta, 2007). A cycle of abortive initiation usually occurs generating a series of short (2-9 base) oligonucleotides, before initiation is usually successful. (iv) Once initiation succeeds, the sigma factor of RNA polymerase dissociates. (v) the dissociation of sigma factor marks the entry of NusA protein, whic h helps elongation, and promotes pausing and termination at specific sites. Core enzyme now undergoes a major conformational rearrangement and a stable ternary elongation complex is formed. This complex moves along DNA, synthesizing RNA all along its path at a rate of about 40 bases per second at 370C (Gupta, 2007). Elongation of RNA transcript continues till an unstable termination complex is formed (Gupta, 2007). Termination The termination of mRNA chain in prokaryotes is brought about by certain termination signals on DNA. These DNA sequences providing termination signals are called terminators (Gupta, 2007). Once the enzyme hits the terminator, it falls off the template and the transcription stops. The termination signals whenever found on DNA can be of two types: (i) Rho (Ï ) dependent termination and (ii) Rho (Ï ) independent termination. (i) Rho (Ï ) dependent termination: The termination factor (Ï ) participates in this type of termination (Jain, 2000). Rho (Ï ) is a 46 KD protein and its active form is a hexamer, having a total mass of 275 KD. It binds to growing RNA chain and moves along the RNA. Once rho catches the RNA polymerase, it results in chain termination. The question arises how?. It has been found that once RNA polymerase hits the terminator sequences, it pauses for a short time. During this period the rho factor reaches the RNA polymerase and causes it to fall off the template. Once RNA polymerase is detached, the RNA chain also comes off and the transcription terminates (Fig). (i) Rho (Ï ) independent termination: In some genes, there is a definite region of intrinsic sequences which causes the termination of RNA chain. This includes two G:C rich stretches at the end of RNA transcript which are complementary to each other. These form a 7-20 bp intra-molecular hairpin structure. Further this region is followed by a small stretch of U residues which form relatively weak interaction with dA residues of the gene (Fig..). such a structure is highly unstable thermodynamically and causes the displacement of newly synthesized RNA from the DNA template. Once the RNA is detached, the RNA polymerase falls off and the termination of transcription occurs. This type of termination provides an interesting example where the structure of RNA itself can cause its own termination from the DNA chain. Transcription in Eukaryotes The eukaryotes have more than one type of RNA polymerase. Based on the activity to ÃŽ ±-aminitin, an antibiotic which inhibits mRNA synthesis, three classes of RNA polymerases have been identified which are involved in the transcription of different class of eukaryotic genes. There properties are given in table 2. The eukaryotic RNA polymerases are large molecules of ˃500KD in size. It has two large subunits of -200KD and -140KD, respectively. The 200 KD subunit is similar to ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ subunit of E. coli of RNA polymerase and have similar function (the template binding). Besides these two proteins it also has upto 10 different small subunits. A subunit of Pol II, which has similarity with one of the subunits present in Pol I and also in Pol III, is similar to the ÃŽ ±-subunit of E. coli enzyme and helps in the enzyme assembly. Besides the RNA polymerase, a number of other transcription factors are also needed for the transcription. Promoter sites for Initiation of transcription Promoters for RNA polymerase I could not be initially studied since all genes for rRNA were similar. Promoters for RNA polymerase III, on the other hand, had some unusual downstream promoters. However for RNA polymerase II, several hundred eukaryotic genes have now been sequenced and their promoters studied revealing some general features in three regions located at start point, centred at sited lying between -25 bp and -100 bp. The least effective of these three regions is the TATA or Hogness box (7 bp long) located 20bp upstream to the start point. The TATA box is surrounded by G-C rich sequences and is comparable to pribnow box of prokaryotes. Further upstream is another sequence called CAAT box, which being necessary for initiation, is conserved in some promoters (ÃŽ ² globin gene), but is not necessary in some other genes. This sequence lies between -70 and -80 bp. Another sequence called GC box (GGGC GG) is found in one or more copies at -60 or -100 bp upstream in any orientation in several genes. It has been shown that CAAT and GC boxes determine the efficiency of transcription, while TATA box aligns RNA polymerase at proper site, with the help of TFIID and other transcription factors (Gupta, 2007). Initiation In eukaryotes the initiation is more complex. It involves a number of specific transcription factors. The process has been followed for the Pol II action resulting in the synthesis of mRNA. The process is essentially similar for Pol I and Pol III. For initiation, it requires, a number of trans acting factors along with the RNA polymerase. The trans acting factors, which are the product of various regulatory genes, bind to either DNA or to each other or to RNA polymerase. They can also bind in various combinations. All the transcription factors involved with Pol II are called TF II. First the factor TF IID binds to TATA box (-15 to -21 region) covering about 25 nucleotides within the -17 to -42 region. Now factor TF IIA associates itself to the complex, further extending the protected region towards upstream, upto the -55 to -80 region. On the other hand TF IIB associates itself protecting the region at -10 to +10. It binds to two strands in a non-symmetrical manner. This complex prep ares the stage for binding of RNA polymerase II which covers up to +15 region on template strand and 5 extra nucleotides (up to +20) on the non-template strand. Finally TF IIE joins, extending the protection upto +30 region. Once the entire complex has been assembled, the incorporation of first nucleotide takes place. Transcription factors and elongation of RNA chains in eukaryotes Certain accessory proteins of transcription, called the elongation factors enhance the overall activity of RNA polymerase II, leading to increase in elongation rate. Atleast two such proteins (transcription factors) are known (i) the transcription factor TFIIF accelerates RNA chain growth relatively uniformly, in concert with RNA polymerase II or pol II, (ii) transcription factor TFIIS (also called SII) helps elongation of RNA chain, by relieving the obstructions in the path of such elongation. TFIIS is known to function by first causing hydrolytic cleavage at 3Ê ¹ end of RNA chain, which are stuck and can not elongate. Thus RNA polymerase moves backwards (hydrolytic cleavage) under the direction of TFIIS before it moves forwards through the block to elongation (fig.) (Gupta, 2007). Termination of RNA synthesis in eukaryotes In eukaryotes, the actual termination of RNA polymerase II activity during termination may take place through termination sites similar to those found in prokaryotes (the nature of individual termination sites is not known). But these termination sites are believed to be present away (sometimes up to one kilobase away) from the site of 3Ê ¹ end of mRNA. Obviously 3Ê ¹ end of mRNA will be generated due to post-transcriptional cleavage. This cleavage, at the end, is believed to be achieved by what is popularly called snurp (small nucleur RNA-protein complex). Snurp used for post-transcription cleavage has not been identified so far but is believed to be certainly different than the U1 snurp, which is believed to be involved in intron splicing in split genes. Moreover, a sequence 5Ê ¹ AAUAAA 3Ê ¹ has been found just on the 5Ê ¹ side of poly(A) addition site in several eukaryotic mRNAs. The poly(A) tail is added to 3Ê ¹ end of eukaryotic mRNA after processin g of precursor mRNA. The sequence 5Ê ¹ AAUAAA 3Ê ¹ in mRNA 3Ê ¹ end seems to be common in eukaryotic mRNA and mutation in this sequence cause elongation of mRNA. This will suggest that this sequence contains the signal for endonucleolytic post-transcriptional cleavage. This sequence therefore, is not involved in the termination of the synthesis of mRNA, but helps in generating 3Ê ¹ end later through endonuclease cleavage, in which snurp helps in an unknown manner. FAQs Q. What is transcription? Ans: synthesis of RNA which carries the genetic information present in DNA. Q. What is the composition of RNA polymerase in prokaryotes? Ans: RNA polymerase consists of five polypeptide chains including two chains of ÃŽ ± (alpha) polypeptide and one chain each of ÃŽ ² (beta) and ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ (beta dash) and ÏÆ' (sigma) polypeptides. Q. What is the function of sigma factor of RNA polymerase in prokaryotes? Ans: The function of sigma factor in prokaryotes is Promoter recognition and initiation of transcription. Q. What are the steps in transcription? Ans: The entire process of transcription can be divided in to following steps: (1) Template recognition, (2) Initiation, (3) Elongation and (4) Termination. Q. What is a Promoter? Ans: Promoter is defined as a sequence of DNA having the signal which directs the proper binding of RNA polymerase to DNA and activates it to a form which is capable of initiating the transcription. Q. What is the role of NusA protein? Ans: NusA protein, helps in elongation, and promotes pausing and termination at specific sites in prokaryotic transcription. Q. How termination of transcription occurs in prokaryotes? Ans: The termination of mRNA chain in prokaryotes is brought about by certain termination signals on DNA. These DNA sequences providing termination signals are called terminators (Gupta, 2007). Once the enzyme hits the terminator, it falls off the template and the transcription stops. The termination signals whenever found on DNA can be of two types: (i) Rho (Ï ) dependent termination and (ii) Rho (Ï ) independent termination. Q. How many RNA polymerases are involved in eukaryotic transcription? Ans: three classes of RNA polymerases (Pol I, Pol II and Pol III) have been identified which are involved in the transcription of different class of eukaryotic genes. Q. What the functions of Pol I, Pol II and Pol III? Ans: The functions of Pol I is Ribosomal RNA synthesis, Pol II is mRNA synthesis and Pol III is tRNA synthesis, 5S and other small RNA synthesis. Q. What are transcription factors? Ans: transcription factors are proteins which are needed for initiation of transcription, but are not a part of RNA polymerase. Q. What is Hogness box? Ans: The second region of eukaryotic promoter which is similar to -10 region of prokaryotes. is called the TATA box or Hogness box. Q. What is the role of transcription factor TFIIF and TFIIS? Ans: the transcription factor TFIIF accelerates RNA chain growth relatively uniformly, in concert with RNA polymerase II or pol II while transcription factor TFIIS helps elongation of RNA chain, by relieving the obstructions in the path of such elongation. Q. How TFIIS helps in elongation of RNA? Ans: TFIIS is known to function by first causing hydrolytic cleavage at 3Ê ¹ end of RNA chain, which are stuck and can not elongate. Q. what is the role of small nucleur RNA-protein complex? Ans: Termination takes place at termination sites which are present away from the site of 3Ê ¹ end of mRNA. The 3Ê ¹ end of mRNA will be generated due to post-transcriptional cleavage. This cleavage, at the end, is believed to be achieved by snurp (small nucleur RNA-protein complex). Q. How does Rho (Ï ) helps in termination of transcription? Ans: When RNA polymerase hits the terminator sequences, it pauses for a short time. During this period the rho factor reaches the RNA polymerase and causes it to fall off the template. MCQs: 1. Transfer of genetic information from DNA to mRNA? a. translation b. transcription c. transformation d. All of the above 2. During transcription the DNA strand which have a sequence homology with the RNA is known as: a. coding strand b. non-coding strand c. Both a and b d. None of the above 3. During transcription the strand which is complementary to RNA and serves as the template for RNA synthesis is known as? a. coding strand b. non-coding strand c. Both a and b d. None of the above 4. The principal enzyme involved in transcription is: a. RNA polymerase b. DNA polymerase c. transcription factor d. a and b only 5. RNA polymerase is: a. RNA dependent b. DNA dependent c. protein dependent d. hormone dependent 6. The RNA polymerase molecule thus can be represented as: a. ÃŽ ±ÃŽ ²2ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ÃÆ' b. ÃŽ ±ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ÃÆ'2 c. ÃŽ ±2ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹ÃÆ' d. ÃŽ ±ÃŽ ²ÃŽ ²ÃƒÅ Ã‚ ¹2ÏÆ' 7. The function of ÃŽ ± subunit is: a. Template binding b. Nucleotide binding c. Both a and b d. Enzyme assembly 8. Sequence of DNA having the signal which directs the proper binding of RNA polymerase to DNA is known as: a. Hogness box b. promoter c. CAAT box d. None of the above 9. The sigma factor is necessary for the formation of: a. promoter-enzyme complex b. Enzyme assembly c. CAAT box d. All of the above 10. The dissociation of sigma factor marks the entry of NusA protein: a. TF IIB b. TF IIE c.TF IIS d. Nus A protein 11. Termination of transcription in prokaryotes is: a. Rho (Ï ) dependent b. Rho (Ï ) independent c. both a and b d. a only 12. Hairpin structure for termination of transcription is found in: a. Rho (Ï ) dependent b. Rho (Ï ) independent c. both a and b d. a only 13. which RNA polymerase is found in Eukaryotes: a. Pol I b. Pol II c. Pol III d. All of the above 14. TATA box of eukaryotes is comparable to which sequence of prokaryotes: a. pribnow box b. CAAT box c. Hogness box d. All of the above 15. Transcription factors helps in: a. initiation b. elongation c. termination d. a and b only 16. At what region of DNA does RNA polymerase first bind to a gene: a. Initiation site b. Transcribed region c. Promoter d. Intron 17. RNA polymerase adds new nucleotides to the growing RNAs at what end? a. 3Ê ¹ end b. 5Ê ¹ end c. both a and b d. none of the above Key: 1-b, 2-a, 3-b, 4-a, 5-b, 6-c, 7-d, 8-b, 9-a, 10-d, 11-c, 12-b, 13-d, 14-a, 15-d, 16-c, 17-a. ASSIGNMENTS/TUTORIALS Q. 1: Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription initiation. Q. 2: Explain the role of RNA polymerase in prokaryotes. Q. 3: Eukaryotes contain multiple RNA polymerases explain their role? Q. 4: Explain Rho dependent and Rho independent termination of transcription in prokaryotes. Q. 5: What are transcription factors? discuss the role.

My Journal - Chronicling Daily Life Experiences :: essays papers

My Journal - Chronicling Daily Life Experiences It is the start of a new year and I thought I would start a journal chronicling my daily experiences. Tonight we decided to go to the local F.O.P. lodge to a New Years Eve party. We had a pretty good time but what happened later that evening is something that I hope I don’t forget for a long time to come. Still fresh in my mind was the conversation Angela and I had on Christmas night. She was hinting that she wasn’t sure if she wanted to be in a serious relationship this soon after the breakup of her previous one. If that wasn’t hard enough on Christmas she also was to ill to attend my brothers wedding with me in Madison Indiana . To add to all the confusion in my head, on my way home I stopped and got her a rose and a â€Å"happy New Years† balloon. She seemed quite touched by the gesture but also visibly troubled by it. I asked her if she was ready to have a good time tonight and she said â€Å"I was but now I don’t know.† Now what in the world does that mean! I tried applying all sorts of significant meanings to that statement but in the end I decided to just let it go and let events unfold as they would. Fast forward to 2 minutes before midnight. Angela is an absolute goddess, she is very beautiful and one of the nicest, sweetest woman I have ever met, but she is not one given to affection, especially public affection. Well at 2 minutes till she laid a kiss on me that lasted well after midnight. She absolutely blew me away!! The rest of the night was nice, we went to a couple more clubs but that moment is burned into my memory. Everything else paled in comparison. I don’t know if it is possible but I think I kissed her with my heart as well as my lips. I have heard of your â€Å"minds eye†, but tonight I found my â€Å"hearts mouth†................. January 2, 1997 I slept very happily all morning. I guess we were up a little later than I thought. I think my mind is still reeling from last night. I don’t know what I’m going to do with my self since Monday Night football is off, and Buffalo is out of the playoffs.

Rembrandts Painting An Old Man in Military Costume Essay example -- P

Rembrandt's Painting "An Old Man in Military Costume" With an extraordinary intensity, Rembrandt van Rijn’s â€Å"An Old Man in Military Costume† is an example of the artist’s use of dynamic lighting. The painting, on display at the Getty Museum, contains a single figure, an old man dressed in a military uniform. While one may appreciate the beauty of the work, to fully experience the passion and genius of the artist, it is necessary to see the painting in person. The delicate details that may be missed by a digital image are easily caught by the human eye. The proper way to view a Rembrandt is in the flesh; the difference is amazing. Born in Leiden, Netherlands, Rembrandt was the son of a miller and a baker’s daughter. Unsatisfied with life at the University of Leiden, Rembrandt left school to pursue painting. He studied under Pieter Lastman who introduced the young painter to the works of Italian masters, particularly Caravaggio. Even though Rembrandt never traveled to Italy, his works bear the stamp of Italian influence, especially in his preference for dramatic lighting over Dutch smoothness. Moving to Amsterdam in 1631, Rembrandt began working for commission and became very successful. He painted â€Å"An Old Man in Military Costume† in 1631, during a time when his work was characterized by strong lighting effects. Neither a religious work nor a commissioned portrait, this work is more than likely one that Rembrandt painted for himself. An unusual painting, â€Å"An Old Man in Military Costume† is a solitary figure against a blank background. The figure, an old man, is dressed in a somber military outfit; a simple costume without any frills or finery. The only decoration is a... ... I was also impressed with the thought that Rembrandt touched the same canvas that I was viewing almost four hundred years ago. The painting serves as a direct link into the past; a past that is remarkable for all it accomplished. A wonderful artistic example of light contrasting with dark, â€Å"Old Man in a Military Costume† is a remembrance of how closely connected we are with the past. When artists or historical figures are merely memorized names, they lose some of their impact; experiencing part of their lives reminds viewers of their humanity. Rembrandt’s painting has many visual layers while containing political and historical significance as well. Work Cited Elizabeth I. â€Å"To the English Troops at Tilbury, Facing the Spanish Armada.† The Longman Anthology of British Literature. Vol 1B. Ed. David Damrosch. New York: Longman, 2003.

William Randolph Hearst and the Spanish American War Essay -- William

William Randolph Hearst and the Spanish American War How far is a person willing to go to be the best? Will he sacrifice friends, family, even the lives of his countrymen? What makes someone that devoted to competition that they are willing to destroy everything that they’ve ever known, and quite possibly start a war in the process all to see that they’ve outsold there competition? These are the questions one must ask once you learn of the life’s story of William Randolph Hearst. From his news empire that included over 2 dozen major newspapers in 15 cities (Swanberg) to his more then slightly warped sense of moral propriety, Hearst’s life led him into the position where he escalated an international dispute into a war with one of Europe’s colonial powers. William Randolph Hearst was born on April 29, 1863, in San Francisco, California, to George Hearst and Phoebe Apperson Hearst. George Hearst was a self-made multimillionaire miner and rancher who spent much of his young life in Franklin County, Missouri in the 1820’s. Growing up he received very little in the way of formal education but he did learn a lot about the so-called "lay of the land," particularly in regards to mining. In fact, legend has it that local Indians referred to him as the "boy that the earth talk to." (Loe) The Senior Hearst quickly made himself wealthy through his investment in mining operations in the United States. Doing all of the research into these sites himself he owned some of the largest claims in the nation, â€Å"including the Comstock Lode in Nevada, the Ontario silver mine in Utah, the Homestake gold mine in South Dakota and the Anaconda copper mine in Montana† (Loe). The Comstock, Homestake and Anaconda claims would become three of the largest mining discoveries in American history. (Swanberg) This sudden success story was an inspiration to his son and his overbearing mother constantly told William of his father’s great successes. It was Williams Mother who became the fiery driving force in the young man’s life, constantly pressuring him to succeed and be better then all others. While George Hearst was running about the American West securing mine space, land grants, and buying hundreds of acres of grazing lands for what would be his second empire, cattle, Phoebe was prepping her son for a life of wealth and privilege. In 1873 she organized a European tour to educate... ...at Hearst and the other yellow journalists started the war, it is fair to say that the press turned what had been overlooked since Grant into a major international affair. Without sensational headlines and stories about Cuban affairs, the mood for Cuban intervention may have been very different. In the end the escalation of the crisis was a simple drive to be the best, to beat everyone else and to prove to the world (and his mother) that William Randolph Hearst was a success in his own right. Works Cited Dyal, Donald H.. Historical Dictionary of the Spanish American War. Greenwood Press: Westport, CT, 1996. Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of William McKinley. University Press of Kansas, 1980. Loe, Nancy E. Hearst Castle. Hearst Castle Historical Society. 03 Dec. 2004 . O'Toole, G.J.A., The Spanish War: An American Epic-1898. W.W. Norton & Company: New York, 1984. Miller, Daniel A."Crucible of Empire." PBS, New York. Video Archive. 02 Dec 2004 . Milton, Joyce. The Yellow Kids: Foreign Correspondents in the Heyday of Yellow Journalism. Harper-Perrenial: New York, 1989. Nasaw, David . The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst . New York: Mariner Books , 2001.

Japanese Management Essay

In the early 1980s, William Ouchi asserted in the U.S. soil the significance of Theory Z (1981), a Japanese management style that includes communal relationship in organizations and strong trust bonds as a more effective way to handle business as evidenced by the success of Japanese corporations.   This has made the interest and appreciation for the Japanese style of management and practices grow for the last twenty years, especially those successful Japanese companies who used unusual approaches (Lee and McCalman, 2008). For Japanese firms, the development of good relationship is a primordial interest. A Japanese firm may refuse to deal with another and ink a partnership regardless of the possible profits it may gain from the venture. The drive to develop a good relationship is primarily due to the very important principle called â€Å"tsuikiai† (socialization) (Lee and McCalman, 2008). Peer-to-peer relationship is more essential than relationship between levels as the Japanese believe that an organization draws strength from the former rather than from the latter. Hence, for American managers, it is only normal to assess their subordinates based on certain criteria. On the contrary, Japanese organizations tend to assess their employees based on their ability to work with their colleagues (Byham, 1993). Japanese managers get good evaluations if their subordinates can work well with each other. As such, Japanese firms give more emphasis on the ability of the employees to work with other employe es and not much on their performance. This is due to their belief that as long as a good relationship is established within the organization, the organization can handle other matters effectively (Lee and McCalman, 2008). For the Japanese, good relationships can be developed through the following: 1) After work dining & drinking session As previously mentioned, the principle of tsuikiai or socialization allow the Japanese to continue to incorporate good relationships as part of their corporate management style. Apparently, this can be seen in their popular practice of usually having dinner and drinking sessions amongst employees after office hours (Lee and McCalman, 2008). This is also the idea of the â€Å"communication plaza concept† wherein the executives meet their employees informally to have lunch or dinner and at the same time to listen to each other   (Otsubo, 1993). Through such engagements, employees have the chance to be more familiar with each other away from the four corners of their business premises. This positively affects the connections among the employees. This enables the Japanese organizations to create a warm and communal workplace where employees feel that they can communicate freely with everyone (Sullivan, 1992). Such practice is not the same with Americans where the latter would pr efer to   maintain the division between their personal and work life. According to Arenson (1993), the connection between U.S. workers and their companies are created by written contracts and the compensation that the companies renumerate to their employees. This complimented the observation rendered by   Rehder (1979) that Japanese managers treat their subordinates like their family members while western managers’ relationships with their subordinates are through contracts which makes the relationship depersonalized.   This is contrary to the belief of Japanese workers that they are obligated to the company they are working for because of the close relationship and bond that they have with their company and this creates mutual trust between the employees and the company. They likewise have a sense of shared focus to reach the goals of the organization. This management theory has been one of the core values of Honda from 1980s when they first established their operations in the United States and this was adopted by Nissan, Mazda and Toyota ( Sullivan, 1992). 2) Quite often meetings rather than electronic or paper work Americans would prefer to have everything first on paper before they can act on a project. Whereas Japanese prefer to do meetings rather than convey their messages through e-mails or doing paper works primarily as they despise memos and paper work (Arenson, 1993). According to Lee and McCalman (2008), it is through meetings that the workers would begin to know each other and determine the things that need to be done. This is most applicable in cases where there are no contracts or written documents involved and through meetings, the employees are able to worke on matters they need to attend to (Lee and McCalman, 2008). 3) Informal arranged agreements vs. legal agreements Before an American company would deal with another enterprise, it is not needed that the two companies develop a good relationship. It does not matter if a company would deal with a competitor provided that the two companies would gain mutual benefit. As a sense of security, American companies need to employ countless lawyers and execute numerous contracts before setting matters off. As a pre-requisite, everything needs to be laid out on paper before anything is started (Lee and McCalman, 2008). The mentality in America is that everything is governed by laws to make sure that people involved know what is set on the line (Arenson, 1993). It is ordinary for companies to deal with strangers and just develop a relationship during their venture (Lee and McCalman, 2008). This is not the case for Japanese companies as they require developing personal relationships before they transact with other business entities. This is because of their belief that it is important that a trusting relationship between two companies is developed before considering to have business venture   (Lee and McCalman, 2008). In Japan, there is less dependence on the laws and rather, more premium is placed in developing a trusting relationship before going into a business transaction. Unlike Americans that prefer to settle everything in a legal way or execute contracts first, Japanese are known to have healthy disdain for lawyers and legal or written actions. And unlike the Americans that would employ lawyers and execute contracts before the transaction, Japanese dislike being forced to deal just because of the contracts and in the process may just ignore some provisions thereto. They believe that the situations will have changed after signing the contract (Lee and McCalman, 2008). In fact, the two countries have a big difference in the number of lawyers as in the United States, there are over 800,000 lawyers as compared to Japan that has 15,000 lawyers only (Arenson, 1993). Moreover, Japanese would prefer to spend more time interacting with their potential customer or supplier before they would commit themselves   (Otsubo, 1993). 4) Networking- personal contacts Japan depends on networking as their society is very much a relationship-oriented one. Japanese would get things done though their personal contacts. For them, a man’s success or failure could be directly affected by their connections that he or she has developed over the years. In fact, a newly graduated Japanese would almost depend exclusively on his or her connections through university or from personal connections to land a job. That is why there is a high probability that the company recruiters would hire applicants coming from the same university as theirs because of the special connection that is existing between the recruiters and the university faculty and staff. This is what Japanese called â€Å"jinmyaku† or the web of human beings. Any internal or external undertaking to the company is accomplished through personal contacts (Lee and McCalman, 2008). It is then ordinary for an employee to develop extensive personal network within and outside the organization to protect his or her success rate especially that a person’s capability depends also on the extensiveness of the networks he or she may have   (Kase and Liu, 1996). Such mentality may affect the attitudes of the Japanese of not working with strangers. Through developing personal contacts takes time, once the networks have been created, everything is much easier as there is not much paperwork and lawyers involved. This principle makes it more difficult for foreign companies to penetrate Japan (Lee and McCalman, 2008). Japanese organizations would prefer hiring somebody who has a connection thereto because hiring a new employee is like welcoming a lifelong member of the corporate family. An individual applying for a position in a company by reason of an advertisement is considered a total stranger. As such, there is a possibility that Japanese companies may look after the personal attributes of an applicant rather than his or her technical attributes (Lee and McCalman, 2008).   It is very vital for an organization to ensure that the person to be hired is a team player and will blend well within the group. This is in contrast with U.S. companies as they prefer to look at the technical attributes of the applicants and highly rely on grade-point averages and specific credentials or competencies (Lee and McCalman, 2008). Networking works wonders in cases where a manager tries to launch a new project and the project is not really within the expertise of the concerned department, managers that have a w ell-established network within the organization could use their connections to persuade their colleagues to support their projects and also use these connections outside the organization to help make the project successful (Kase and Liu, 1996). Japanese manufacturing companies were able to capitalize in their personalized networking system that they were able to establish when they internationalized their operations during the late 1970s and 1980s. The personalized networks developed between their head offices and subsidiaries made the flow of the information run smoothly and eventually positively affect the efficiency of the companies (Kase and Liu, 1996). Moreover, Japanese companies establish personal networking with other Japanese companies in other countries (Yu and Ohle, 2008) for their advantage. 5) Teaming up in everything they do One of the major difference between Japanese management and Western management is that the structure of the organization is loose or poorly defined whereas the structure of the organization of the western management is tight or the specific functions are associated with specific boxes (Rehder, 1979). Teaming is a very important aspect in the management of a project. That is why the composition of teams that will handle organizational projects are carefully selected (Lee and McCalman, 2008). Even in creating an organizational project, the composition of the team that will develop and plan the concerned project is carefully assembled from the different departments of the organization (Gray and Larson, 2003). And up to the time that the organizational project is already running after the planning stage, there are still some times that the personnel from the planning stage will coordinate with the functional managers and project managers of the actual operation of the project (Gray and Larson, 2003). As Japanese companies or the Japanese culture itself has high regard on the â€Å"web of human beings†, it is part of the establishment of trust within the team to develop close personal relationship among the team members. The trust created by the â€Å"tsuikiai† plays an important role in the accomplishment of the interconnected tasks of the team members. A high level of trust is necessary for the accomplishment and implementation of the various tasks that the manager is leading (Kezner, 2000). Every meticulous aspect of the project requires the highest level of cooperation and team work among the players performing the tasks. That is why it is the responsibility of the project manager to build and maintain a high level of trust within the team to ensure the successful operation of a project throughout its course (Kezner, 2000). This is where the American employees of some Japanese companies are impressed with how every Japanese members of the team would persist to wo rk together to collect and discuss data gathered and develop ways to respond to different situations and improve their performance (Sullivan, 1992). Another thing that shows the Japanese persistence to teaming up is their decision-making system, or also known as â€Å"ringi† or decision by consensus system. This enables the employees to be motivated to work together.   The term ringi actually came from two words: ‘ri’, which means to ask from below and ‘gi’ which means to deliberate (Ichiro, 1977). By the Japanese decision-making systems, the organization initially debates on the meaning of a certain question and determines its possible solutions until consensus if finally reached. The process of the decision making and even the initiation of the process are participated in by all levels of the organization, whether the process be a verbal or written one (Naotsuka, 1978). This is because the Japanese have a view that it is important to first debate the problem or the question to achieve full comprehension in its general corporate-wide perspective, after which is to establish a consensus to preve nt groups from taking sides on one solution or another hastily. In such case, clash between the prevailing and losing groups is prevented because conflicts will only weaken the implementation of the favored solution. This normative process is called by the Japanese as â€Å"nemawashi† (Naotsuka, 1978).